Further reading: accounts and works on the same theme
Accounts and works around this subject, in date order, to place our titles in context. Each links to a free online edition when one exists, or to our own page when the work is in our catalogue.
-
Ibn Joubayr, Relation des voyages (1183-1185)
The Andalusian pilgrim from Valencia made the pilgrimage to Mecca between 1183 and 1185 and wrote the notebook that would found the classical Arabic genre of the rihla. He passed through the same Egyptian ports, sailed down the Red Sea, and saw Mecca one hundred forty years after Nasir, under the Ayyubids of Saladin. More literary, more brilliant, and also more laudatory toward the restored Sunni power, he completes his predecessor on every point where Nasir remained silent. The two notebooks read almost like a two-voice score on the same Levant.
-
Marco Polo, Le Devisement du monde (1298)
On his way back from China, the Venetian sails along the Coromandel coast, stops at the tomb of Saint Thomas, describes the pearl fisheries, the naked kings covered in jewels, the widow-burning pyres and the kingdom of Ceylon with its sacred peak. All the marvels that Hamilton finds diminished or disputed, Marco Polo sees in their full brilliance, four centuries earlier. To read one after the other is to follow the slow transformation of the same shore, from medieval splendors to the fortified trading posts of the age of the companies.
-
Ibn Battuta, Voyages (1325-1354)
The great traveler from Tangier crisscrossed, over thirty years between 1325 and 1354, the entire Muslim world, from sub-Saharan Africa to China. When he passes through Jerusalem, Cairo, or Mecca, it is three centuries after Nasir, and the world has been transformed: the Crusades over, the Mongols established, the Mamluks in Cairo. The contrast with the Persian's notebook gives the measure of what has changed. Where Nasir describes in a few pages, Ibn Battuta expands into personal adventures, marriages, learned disputes, and princely banquets.
-
Ludovico di Varthema, Itinéraire (1510)
A Bolognese adventurer of the early sixteenth century, Varthema is one of the first Europeans to visit Mecca disguised as a pilgrim, then to sail down the Red Sea to Aden and reach India. He travels the Arabian coast that Hamilton will follow two centuries later, stops at the same coffee ports, and describes the same sheikhs greedy for tribute. His picaresque account illuminates, in advance, the Arab world that the captain will later observe with the colder eye of a merchant.
-
Antonio Pigafetta, Relation du premier voyage autour du monde (1519-1522)
Two centuries before Hamilton, the gentleman of Vicenza embarks with Magellan and survives the expedition that first crosses the Pacific. He touches at the Philippines, where the captain will meet his death, reaches Borneo and its splendid court, loads cloves from the Moluccas and sails along Timor, these same islands the Scottish merchant will visit two hundred years later. His wonder-struck journal shows the spice archipelago at the very moment Europe discovers it, when Hamilton will see nothing of it but the trading posts the companies fight over. To read one after the other is to follow the passage from the dream of spices to their ordinary trade.
-
Cristóbal Acosta, Tractado de las drogas y medicinas de las Indias Orientales (1578)
A physician and surgeon, Cristóbal Acosta arrives in Goa around 1568, the very year of Orta's death, in the retinue of Viceroy Luís de Ataíde. He travels the Malabar coast and the Konkan, sees growing the plants the Colloquies described, then publishes in Burgos a treatise that takes up Orta in Castilian, completes it and corrects it here and there. His most valuable contribution lies in the woodcuts: where Orta had included no image, Acosta draws the trees and the drugs. The book extends the Colloquies a generation later and helps make them known in the Hispanic world.
-
Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, Lettres turques (1581)
The imperial ambassador to Istanbul publishes his four Latin letters from the court of Suleiman the Magnificent in 1581. A hundred and eighty years after Schiltberger, the same Ottoman empire, more powerful than ever, receives another Westerner, this time an ambassador. Busbecq describes the Sublime Porte at its height, in the very years when the Frankfurt printer republishes the Bavarian's account for his contemporaries as a cautionary tale. Reading Busbecq right after Schiltberger means following the Ottoman Empire from its childhood to its zenith.
-
Jan Huyghen van Linschoten, Itinerario (1596)
A young Dutchman in the service of the Archbishop of Goa from 1583 to 1588, Linschoten observes the Portuguese city twenty years after Orta: its markets, festivals, slaves, churches, Banian merchants and spices. Back in Holland he publishes an Itinerario that delivers to the Dutch the routes and secrets of Portuguese trade and opens the way for their fleets. For plants and drugs, his chapters lean heavily on the Colloquies, annotated by the physician Bernardus Paludanus. The knowledge gathered in Orta's house thus passes, through Linschoten, to the Portuguese's Dutch rivals.
-
Matteo Ricci and Nicolas Trigault, Histoire de l'expédition chrétienne au royaume de la Chine (1615)
The Jesuit Ricci, who entered China at the end of the sixteenth century, learns the language and the classics, wins the friendship of the scholars and makes his way to Peking. His account, set down by Trigault, reveals to Europe a refined civilization that the captain, a century later, will encounter only through the customs gate at Canton. Where Hamilton rages against the Hoppo and his extortions, Ricci describes the court from within, the examination of the mandarins and the wisdom of Confucius, and lends to the China of the merchants a learned depth that the trader's eye alone lacks.
-
Tomé Pires, Suma oriental (c. 1515)
A Portuguese apothecary and agent, Pires writes around 1515, from Malacca itself, the most complete description of the great Asian trade of his time, before dying a prisoner in China. He lists the cargoes, the routes and the nations that cross paths at the strait, that same chokepoint where Hamilton ends his second volume. His meticulous inventory shows Malacca at the height of its mercantile fortune, when the Scottish captain will see in it no more than a Dutch colony, still rich but fallen from its former glory.
-
Duarte Barbosa, Le Livre de Duarte Barbosa (c. 1516)
A Portuguese factor of the early sixteenth century, Barbosa describes the Indian Ocean at the moment his nation holds its keys, two centuries before Hamilton observes its decline. Cambay, Diu, Hormuz, Mombasa, Mozambique: every stronghold the Scottish captain finds fortified, besieged, or lost, Barbosa sees new, in the hands of the Crown of Portugal. Reading the two in succession is to measure the slow tide that draws Lusitanian power back from these shores.
-
François Pyrard de Laval, Voyage de François Pyrard de Laval aux Indes orientales (1611)
Shipwrecked in the Maldives in 1602 and held for five years in the archipelago, Pyrard de Laval of Laval finally reaches the Indian coast, then Goa, where he is treated in the Royal Hospital and for a time imprisoned before returning to France. He describes the city at the height of its splendour: the merchant streets, the processions, the fidalgos, the physicians and the remedies of the country. Half a century after Orta, he shows the Portuguese capital seen from below, by a man without a protector. His chapter on the hospital of Goa echoes the scenes of care in the Colloquies, where cholera and the bloody flux are treated.
-
Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, The Six Voyages (1631-1668)
The necessary companion to this reading. A dealer in precious stones, Tavernier travels the very road of the Account six times between 1631 and 1668: Aleppo, the desert, Baghdad, Isfahan, Gombroon, Surat, Golconda. He knows every caravanserai, every customs house, every exchange rate, and describes the diamond mine of the King of Golconda that Bourges only glimpsed. Where the priest counts souls, the merchant counts carats. The two books overlap so often that together they form the best guide to the overland route to Asia in the seventeenth century.
-
Adam Olearius, Voyage en Moscovie, Tartarie et Perse (1647)
The diplomat from Holstein publishes in 1647 his account of the 1633-1639 journey through Moscow, the Volga, the Caspian Sea, Isfahan, and back by way of Baku. Two hundred years after Schiltberger, the same Siberian, Caucasian, and Persian geography, but under different rulers: the Romanovs in Russia, the Safavids in Persia, the Ottomans in the Caucasus. Schiltberger had seen these roads amid the disorder of Tatar successions; Olearius sees them consolidated into modern empires.
-
Nicolas Sanson and the Cartographers of the Grand Siècle (1650-1700)
Before modern surveys, the Indian Ocean can be read on the maps of the king's geographers, where the coastlines Hamilton calls so poorly rendered gradually take shape. Following these maps, from the Ethiopic Sea to the mouths of the Indus, helps explain why the captain constantly complains of shoals and rocks missing from the charts: he sails through a world still only half guessed at, one that others, after him, would finish drawing.
-
Robert Knox, An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon in the East Indies (1659-1679)
Burckhardt knows the King of Kandy only through the Puqvoy embassy. The English sailor Robert Knox, for his part, lived nineteen years in his kingdom. Captured in 1659 with part of his crew by the troops of Raja Sinha II, he survives by knitting caps and lending grain, until his escape to the Dutch fort of Arippu, which sends him on to Batavia. Back in London in September 1680, he publishes his account in 1681, with the support of the Royal Society. Translated into German as early as 1689, it offers the exact reverse of Burckhardt's: Sinhalese Ceylon from the inside, seen by a captive, against the Ceylon of the Dutch coastal forts.
Read a free edition → -
Johan Nieuhof, L'Ambassade de la Compagnie orientale des Provinces-Unies vers l'empereur de la Chine (1665)
A member of the first great Dutch embassy to Peking, in the middle of the seventeenth century, Nieuhof travels up China from Canton to the capital and brings back hundreds of drawings that fix, for a long time to come, Europe's image of the country. He sees, fifty years before Hamilton, the same rivers, the same bridges and the same cities, but from the side of the pleading embassy rather than the deceived merchant. His book sheds light on the ceremony and the haughtiness of the imperial administration that the captain will suffer in his turn, without ever penetrating its ways.
-
Arnoldus Montanus, Ambassades mémorables vers les empereurs du Japon (1669)
A Dutch compiler of the seventeenth century, Montanus gathers the accounts of the Company's envoys to the Japan of the shoguns, that country closed upon itself which only the Dutch may still approach, through the narrow window of Nagasaki. His book, alive with processions and marvels, shows the closed empire that Hamilton only glimpses from afar, and tells in full the suppression of Christianity and the cunning of the merchants that the captain sums up in a few forceful pages. It is the great European picture of forbidden Japan, of which Hamilton gives only the sketch.
-
François Bernier, Travels in the Mogul Empire (1670-1671)
Aurangzeb's physician, Bernier lives twelve years in the empire the missionaries cross by ox-cart in forty-one days. He tells from within the war of succession that Bourges sums up in a single sentence, that of the fakir prince who became emperor, and describes the camps, the provinces, the famine, the system of land tenure. His letters give the silent march of chapter six its political weight: those fortresses occupied by Shivaji, those five thousand horsemen camped in the night belong to an empire beginning to crack.
-
Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, Les Six Voyages de Jean-Baptiste Tavernier en Turquie, en Perse et aux Indes (1676)
A dealer in precious stones, Tavernier makes the journey to the East six times between 1631 and 1668. He passes through Goa, by then in decline, but above all he visits the diamond mines of the Deccan, Golconda and Kollur, which he describes with a jeweller's precision. Orta's colloquy on the diamond, its mines and its cuts finds in him a continuation by a man of the trade, a century later. His accounts of the Mughal and Persian courts, the caravan roads and the markets of India make him one of the great European witnesses of seventeenth-century India.
-
Robert Knox, Relation de l'île de Ceylan (1681)
An English sailor held prisoner for nearly twenty years in Ceylon, close to the Maldives, Knox wrote in the following century a captivity narrative that strangely echoes Pyrard's: the same forced apprenticeship in a language and a people, the same patience, the same escape in the end. Two European captives on the waters of the Indian Ocean, a century apart, and the same transformation of prisoner into witness.
-
Jean Chardin, Travels in Persia and Other Places of the East (1686)
Ten years after the French passed through, Chardin settles in Isfahan and lives there for years. His book remains the most complete description of Safavid Persia before its fall: the shah's court, the colleges, the gardens, the royal square, the religious debates whose subtlety and wit Bourges had only sensed. There, developed over hundreds of pages, is the city the Account crosses in three months and a dozen paragraphs. Read it to understand what the French travellers saw opening, then closing again.
-
Nicolas Gervaise, Natural and Political History of the Kingdom of Siam (1688)
Twenty-five years later, a young priest of the Foreign Missions, trained in the seminary founded thanks to Jacques de Bourges's return, publishes on Siam the book the Account had only sketched. Gervaise has lived four years at Ayutthaya, speaks the language, knows the court and the monasteries. His chapters on the talapoins, on funerals, on kingship and on rice take up, correct and deepen those of his predecessor. It is the best way to measure what the Account had seen rightly and what it had only guessed through an interpreter.
-
Simon de La Loubère, A New Historical Relation of the Kingdom of Siam (1691)
Envoy extraordinary of Louis XIV in 1687, La Loubère witnesses the height, then the ruin, of the Franco-Siamese alliance. His work, which has remained a classic, describes the country with almost scientific rigour: measurements, calendar, Siamese mathematics, language, government. The contrast is striking with the account of 1666, where four exhausted priests land without a word of Siamese. Twenty-five years separate the canoe at Lalinga from the embassies in embroidered dress, and the two books tell the beginning and the end of the same French adventure in Asia.
-
Gemelli Careri, Voyage autour du monde (1699-1700)
At the end of the seventeenth century, the Neapolitan jurist travels around the world at his own expense. He crosses China, goes up to Peking, contemplates the Great Wall, then embarks at Manila on the galleon that links the Philippines to America. Almost a contemporary of Hamilton, he sails exactly the seas of this third volume, but as a free-roaming man of curiosity rather than a merchant. His testimony confirms, corrects or colors many a scene of the captain's, from the court of Canton to the streets of Manila, and gives a learned traveling companion to the crossing of the Malay Archipelago and the China seas.
-
Engelbert Kaempfer, Amœnitates exoticæ (1712)
The physician and naturalist from Westphalia crosses Russia, Safavid Persia, and the Caspian Sea in 1683-1685. His scientific Latin from the close of the seventeenth century offers the first complete European portrait of modern Persia. Where Schiltberger bore first-person witness to Timurid destruction, Kaempfer describes Iran rebuilt under Shah Abbas, with its gardens, its mosques, its caravanserais.
-
Peter Kolben, The Present State of the Cape of Good-Hope (1705-1713)
Thirty years after Burckhardt's stop, the Franconian Peter Kolb lands at the Cape in 1705, sent by a Prussian councillor, Baron von Krosigk, to make astronomical observations there. He stays several years, until his eyesight fails, and takes a particular interest in the Dutch colony and the Khoikhoi, those Burckhardt calls the Hottentots. His great book appears in Nuremberg in 1719, followed by a French translation in 1741. Kolb breaks with the clichés of his predecessors, compares the beliefs of the Khoikhoi with those of Europeans and reports the armed raids of the settlers. To be reread alongside the chapter on the Cape, written by a passing soldier in a hurry to leave.
Read a free edition → -
Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, Relation d'un voyage du Levant (1717)
The Sun King's French botanist publishes in 1717 his account of the 1700-1702 mission to Anatolia, Georgia, Armenia, and Constantinople. The same places as Schiltberger, exactly three hundred years later, seen through the eyes of a scholar of the nascent Enlightenment. The Caucasus and Anatolia have changed Ottoman rulers, but the names of the cities, the peoples, the religions are much as the Bavarian had seen them.
-
Johann Wolfgang Heydt, Allerneuester Geographisch- und Topographischer Schau-Platz von Africa und Ost-Indien (1733-1740)
Half a century later, Johann Wolfgang Heydt follows in Burckhardt's footsteps: a German who entered the Company's service in 1733, he first spends two years in Ceylon before reaching Batavia, where in 1737 he becomes the Company's architect and draughtsman. Back in Europe in 1740 for reasons of health, he publishes in Nuremberg in 1744 a large album of more than a hundred plates engraved after his drawings, with a long text: the Cape, Colombo and its fortifications, Batavia, Malacca, the Moluccas, Dejima. There one sees, drawn, the places Burckhardt describes in words: the citadels, the streets, the gardens and the life of the European employees of the Indies.
Read a free edition → -
Carl Peter Thunberg, Travels in Europe, Africa, and Asia (1770-1779)
A pupil of Linnaeus, the Swede Carl Peter Thunberg signs on in 1771 as a surgeon of the Dutch Company in order to collect plants in the Indies. He spends three years at the Cape, reaches Batavia in May 1775, stays at the Dejima trading post and in 1776 accompanies the Dutch embassy to Edo, then lives in Ceylon from July 1777 to February 1778, before returning by way of the Cape. His account appears in Uppsala from 1788. A hundred years later, he almost retraces the route of Burckhardt's memorial, from the Cape to closed Japan by way of Ceylon, but with a naturalist's eye: where the clerk reports marvels, Thunberg names, classifies and describes the plants.
Read a free edition → -
Le Gentil de la Galaisière, Voyage dans les mers de l'Inde (1779-1781)
An astronomer sent to observe the transit of Venus in the eighteenth century, Le Gentil failed in his calculations but, by chance, achieved a long crossing of the same waters Pyrard had known two centuries earlier. His account shows a Coromandel coast and islands now drawn into the great game of the European empires.
-
Volney, Voyage en Égypte et en Syrie (1787)
The French philosopher traveled through the Ottoman Orient between 1783 and 1785 and published his account in Paris in 1787. He describes Jerusalem, Damascus, Cairo, and the Levantine coast with a rationalist and critical eye. The same geography as Nasir's, seven centuries later, under another empire and other dynasties. A foundational text of modern Orientalism, illuminating to read after the Persian because it shows, ten generations later, what the same land had become: an Ottoman Levant, impoverished, numbed, yet still largely recognizable as the one Nasir had crossed.
-
James Bruce, Voyage aux sources du Nil (1790)
Half a century after Hamilton, the Scotsman James Bruce finally enters the Abyssinia his countryman had known only through the accounts of fleeing missionaries. He lives at the court of the ruler Europeans called Prester John, and sees with his own eyes the customs, the raw meat, and the salt currency that Hamilton had known only by hearsay. His account confirms, corrects, and extends the astonished pages the captain devotes to the Christian kingdom of the mountains.
-
Chateaubriand, Itinéraire de Paris à Jérusalem (1806-1807)
Setting out in 1806, the French writer crossed Greece, reached Constantinople, landed in the Holy Land, visited Jerusalem and Bethlehem, then returned by way of Egypt and the Maghreb. His account, published in Paris in 1811, follows almost step by step Nasir's Syro-Palestinian route, but the gaze has changed entirely: where the Persian measures cubits and counts gates, the Romantic seeks ruins, tombs, and emotion. Two opposite ways of keeping a notebook before the same stones.
-
Edward Lane, Mœurs et coutumes des Égyptiens modernes (1836)
The English Arabist settled in Cairo in 1825, then again in 1833, in the time of Muhammad Ali, and published in 1836 the most meticulous description of the Cairo of his century. He too distinguishes, as Nasir had eight hundred years earlier, between Cairo and Old Cairo, the pomp of power and the abundance of the bazaars. It is the same labyrinth of alleys, the same call to prayer, the same spice merchants, but the dynasty has changed many times over and the caliphate no longer exists. Lane completes from within what Nasir had begun: an anthropology of the city as lived.
-
Richard Francis Burton, Goa, and the Blue Mountains (1851)
In 1847 the young Lieutenant Burton, ill, obtains leave and goes down to Goa before climbing to breathe the air of the Nilgiris, the Blue Mountains. He finds a Portuguese capital almost abandoned, Old Goa overrun by vegetation, its churches and convents silent, far from the rich city where Orta received his visitors. Ironic, curious about everything, already fascinated by languages and customs, Burton describes the Canarins, the half-castes, the priests and the plantations. His book takes the measure of time passed: three centuries after the Colloquies, Goa has become a setting of ruins.
Read a free edition → -
Henri Mouhot, Travels in the Central Parts of Siam, Cambodia, and Laos (1863)
Two centuries later, a French naturalist travels the same rivers, sleeps in the same forests and fights the same leeches, before dying of fever in Laos in 1861. His notebooks, published after his death, made Angkor known to Europe. In them one recognizes, almost unchanged, the Tenasserim and the jungles Bourges crossed in broken-down carts, with tigers around the camp. The permanence of the landscape makes all the more visible what two centuries had changed in men.
-
Vasily Vereshchagin, Tableaux et croquis de l'Asie centrale (1870)
The great Russian painter, who follows Konstantin von Kaufman's military expedition to Turkestan in the 1860s and 1870s, paints Samarkand, Khiva, and Bukhara before they are absorbed into Russia. His descriptions accompanying the paintings depict a Central Asia still recognizable from Schiltberger's: local emirs, religious fanaticism, Circassian slaves, processions of horsemen. The last years when the steppe still looked like the steppe.
-
Ernst Haeckel, A Visit to Ceylon (1881-1882)
Two centuries after Burckhardt, another German discovers Ceylon with wonder. The zoologist Ernst Haeckel, a professor at Jena and a great champion of Darwin, lands in Colombo on 21 November 1881, after a voyage by way of Bombay, and stays on the island until March 1882. He sets up a laboratory at Belligemma, today's Weligama, on the south coast not far from Matara, where Burckhardt had capsized, visits Kandy and the Peradeniya garden and climbs the island's highest peak. His letters, collected under the title Indische Reisebriefe, celebrate the jungle, the sea and the wildlife, with the racial prejudices of their time.
Read a free edition → -
Lord Curzon, Russia in Central Asia (1889)
The future Viceroy of India publishes in 1889 his account of a journey through the newly conquered Russian Turkestan. Schiltberger had seen Sarai on the Volga in its splendor; Curzon crosses its ruins of sand. A thousand roads the Bavarian had traveled as a captive, the Englishman retraces by trans-Caspian railway. Industrial modernity has replaced the nomadic steppe.
-
Guy Le Strange, Palestine sous les musulmans (1890)
In 1890, the English orientalist gathered the descriptions that Arab and Persian geographers had left of Syria and Palestine from the seventh to the fifteenth century, giving considerable space to Nasir's account of Jerusalem and the Haram. Reading this collection after the Safarnama places the Persian's notebook within the chorus of all those who described the holy city before the Crusaders: Le Strange translates, compares, situates, and lets Nasir's voice be heard among his peers.