Our titles on this subject
Further reading: accounts and works on the same theme
Accounts and works around this subject, in date order, to place our titles in context. Each links to a free online edition when one exists, or to our own page when the work is in our catalogue.
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Ibn Joubayr, Relation des voyages (1183-1185)
The Andalusian pilgrim from Valencia made the pilgrimage to Mecca between 1183 and 1185 and wrote the notebook that would found the classical Arabic genre of the rihla. He passed through the same Egyptian ports, sailed down the Red Sea, and saw Mecca one hundred forty years after Nasir, under the Ayyubids of Saladin. More literary, more brilliant, and also more laudatory toward the restored Sunni power, he completes his predecessor on every point where Nasir remained silent. The two notebooks read almost like a two-voice score on the same Levant.
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Ibn Battuta, Voyages (1325-1354)
The great traveler from Tangier crisscrossed, over thirty years between 1325 and 1354, the entire Muslim world, from sub-Saharan Africa to China. When he passes through Jerusalem, Cairo, or Mecca, it is three centuries after Nasir, and the world has been transformed: the Crusades over, the Mongols established, the Mamluks in Cairo. The contrast with the Persian's notebook gives the measure of what has changed. Where Nasir describes in a few pages, Ibn Battuta expands into personal adventures, marriages, learned disputes, and princely banquets.
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Peter Füssli, Voyage à Jérusalem en 1523 et lettre sur la chute de Rhodes (1523)
Four years after Tschudi, another Confederate takes the road to the Holy Sepulchre: the Zurich bell and cannon founder Peter Füssli, a former captain of the Italian wars and a member of his city's Great Council. His account of 1523, drier than the Glarus man's, follows the same pilgrim route through Venice, but it comes with a letter on the fall of Rhodes, taken by Suleiman the Magnificent at the end of 1522: the island where Tschudi had Peter Falck and Melchior zur Gilgen buried is now Ottoman, and its knights have gone. Füssli's two texts were edited together in 1982, and reading them directly extends Tschudi's retrospective aside on Rhodes.
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Pierre Belon, Les Observations de plusieurs singularités et choses mémorables (1546-1549)
The naturalist Pierre Belon of Le Mans set out in 1546 in the retinue of the French embassy to Suleiman and returned only in 1549. His Observations, published in 1553, lead the reader through Greece, Crete, Constantinople, Egypt and the Holy Land, but with a different eye from Tschudi's: Belon notes plants, fish, snakes, remedies and trades, and describes people more than relics. A generation after the Glarus pilgrim, the eastern Mediterranean becomes a field of learned inquiry, and the road to Jerusalem a path for the curious as much as for the devout. The stopovers at Candia and Rhodes take on quite a different aspect there.
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Leonhard Rauwolf, Description véritable du voyage en Orient (Aigentliche Beschreibung der Raiß) (1573-1576)
A physician and botanist from Augsburg, Leonhard Rauwolf sailed from Marseille in 1573 on behalf of a trading house, lived nine months in Aleppo, went down to Baghdad, then, recalled by the bankruptcy of his backers, made the pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1575 before returning by way of Venice in early 1576. His account, printed at Lauingen in 1582, is a herbarium as much as a diary; in it one reads one of the first European descriptions of coffee. Like Tschudi, Rauwolf writes in German for readers who stayed at home, but he discovers a Holy Land where the Ottoman administration, still brand new in 1519, has been in place for more than half a century.
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Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, Lettres turques (1581)
The imperial ambassador to Istanbul publishes his four Latin letters from the court of Suleiman the Magnificent in 1581. A hundred and eighty years after Schiltberger, the same Ottoman empire, more powerful than ever, receives another Westerner, this time an ambassador. Busbecq describes the Sublime Porte at its height, in the very years when the Frankfurt printer republishes the Bavarian's account for his contemporaries as a cautionary tale. Reading Busbecq right after Schiltberger means following the Ottoman Empire from its childhood to its zenith.
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George Sandys, A Relation of a Journey begun An. Dom. 1610 (1610-1611)
In 1610 the English poet George Sandys leaves Venice on a long journey through the Ottoman Empire: Constantinople, Egypt and Sinai, Palestine, then Cyprus, before heading back by way of Sicily, Naples and Rome. His Relation, published in 1615 and often reprinted, describes the Holy Sepulchre, the Christian communities that share its chapels and the pilgrims who came from all over Europe. Less than a century after Tschudi, the setting has changed little, with its Franciscans, its taxes and its escorts, and the itinerary still runs through Venice and Cyprus; but the eye is that of a learned Protestant, attentive to antiquities and more sceptical of relics than the gentleman of Glarus.
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Adam Olearius, Voyage en Moscovie, Tartarie et Perse (1647)
The diplomat from Holstein publishes in 1647 his account of the 1633-1639 journey through Moscow, the Volga, the Caspian Sea, Isfahan, and back by way of Baku. Two hundred years after Schiltberger, the same Siberian, Caucasian, and Persian geography, but under different rulers: the Romanovs in Russia, the Safavids in Persia, the Ottomans in the Caucasus. Schiltberger had seen these roads amid the disorder of Tatar successions; Olearius sees them consolidated into modern empires.
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Jean de Thévenot, Relation d'un voyage fait au Levant (1664)
Forty years after Bénard, another young Parisian sets out for the Levant, in 1655. Jean de Thévenot spends several years in Constantinople, Egypt and the Holy Land, where he too receives the knighthood of the Holy Sepulchre. But where Bénard counts indulgences, Thévenot observes customs, coins, coffee houses and caravans with the curiosity of a traveller rather than a pilgrim. His account appeared in 1664 and was often reprinted. He then left again for Persia and India and died on the way home, in 1667. The two books show how, within a generation, pilgrimage turns into a journey of observation.
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Henry Maundrell, A Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem at Easter, A.D. 1697 (1697)
Chaplain to the English merchants of Aleppo, Henry Maundrell sets out in February 1697 with some fifteen companions to spend Easter in Jerusalem. He follows the Syrian and Lebanese coast through Sidon, Tyre and Acre, the very ports where Bénard landed and later re-embarked, before climbing to the Holy City and returning by Damascus and Baalbek. A Protestant, he watches the ceremonies of the Holy Sepulchre with an irony Bénard would not have understood, but he measures distances and describes ruins with an accuracy that made his small book, published in Oxford in 1703 and translated into French as early as 1705, a travelling companion for the next century's visitors.
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Engelbert Kaempfer, Amœnitates exoticæ (1712)
The physician and naturalist from Westphalia crosses Russia, Safavid Persia, and the Caspian Sea in 1683-1685. His scientific Latin from the close of the seventeenth century offers the first complete European portrait of modern Persia. Where Schiltberger bore first-person witness to Timurid destruction, Kaempfer describes Iran rebuilt under Shah Abbas, with its gardens, its mosques, its caravanserais.
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Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, Relation d'un voyage du Levant (1717)
The Sun King's French botanist publishes in 1717 his account of the 1700-1702 mission to Anatolia, Georgia, Armenia, and Constantinople. The same places as Schiltberger, exactly three hundred years later, seen through the eyes of a scholar of the nascent Enlightenment. The Caucasus and Anatolia have changed Ottoman rulers, but the names of the cities, the peoples, the religions are much as the Bavarian had seen them.
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Volney, Voyage en Égypte et en Syrie (1787)
The French philosopher traveled through the Ottoman Orient between 1783 and 1785 and published his account in Paris in 1787. He describes Jerusalem, Damascus, Cairo, and the Levantine coast with a rationalist and critical eye. The same geography as Nasir's, seven centuries later, under another empire and other dynasties. A foundational text of modern Orientalism, illuminating to read after the Persian because it shows, ten generations later, what the same land had become: an Ottoman Levant, impoverished, numbed, yet still largely recognizable as the one Nasir had crossed.
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Chateaubriand, Itinéraire de Paris à Jérusalem (1806-1807)
In 1806 Chateaubriand leaves Paris for Jerusalem by way of Greece, Constantinople and Rhodes, lands at Jaffa and goes up to the holy city, where the Father Guardian of the Franciscans dubs him a knight of the Holy Sepulchre with the sword attributed to Godfrey of Bouillon. The Itinerary from Paris to Jerusalem, published in 1811, makes this journey one of the great texts of French prose. Nearly three centuries separate the two dubbings, and reading it one gauges what has changed and what remains: the same roadstead at Jaffa, the same friars to welcome the pilgrim, the same ceremony, but a traveller who looks for ruins and memories as much as for indulgences.
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Alexander Kinglake, Eothen (1834-1835)
In 1834 the young Englishman Alexander Kinglake left Belgrade and rode across the Ottoman Balkans to Constantinople, then on to Smyrna, Cyprus, Beirut, Nazareth, Jerusalem and, through the desert, to Cairo during the plague of 1835. It is almost Mayr's itinerary twenty years on, with the same quarantines and the same fear of contagion. Eothen, published in 1844, is written with a nonchalant humour that has made it a classic. The Swiss merchant and the English gentleman share a dislike of bombast and a taste for the lived anecdote.
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Alphonse de Lamartine, Voyage en Orient (1835)
In the autumn of 1832, three years after Prokesch, Alphonse de Lamartine lands at Beirut with his wife and his daughter Julia, then rides to Jerusalem, escorted like a prince. He looks there less for proof than for emotion: the Holy Sepulchre, the Valley of Jehoshaphat and the Mount of Olives become lyrical meditations under his pen. On the return, Julia dies in Beirut, and the journey turns into mourning. His Voyage en Orient, published in 1835, fixed the romantic image of the Holy Land for generations. The contrast with Prokesch is sharp: where the Austrian major records, measures and compares texts, the poet contemplates and remembers.
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Edward Lane, Mœurs et coutumes des Égyptiens modernes (1836)
The English Arabist settled in Cairo in 1825, then again in 1833, in the time of Muhammad Ali, and published in 1836 the most meticulous description of the Cairo of his century. He too distinguishes, as Nasir had eight hundred years earlier, between Cairo and Old Cairo, the pomp of power and the abundance of the bazaars. It is the same labyrinth of alleys, the same call to prayer, the same spice merchants, but the dynasty has changed many times over and the caliphate no longer exists. Lane completes from within what Nasir had begun: an anthropology of the city as lived.
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John Lloyd Stephens, Incidents of Travel in Egypt, Arabia Petraea, and the Holy Land (1837)
In 1836, the American John Lloyd Stephens follows Laborde's route almost step by step: Cairo, Sinai, the fortress of Aqaba, the Wadi Araba, Petra. He travels in the dress of a Cairo merchant and, at Aqaba, the garrison immediately demands baksheesh: they still remember the shower of gold scattered there ten years earlier by Laborde, and Linant is still known to everyone. In Cairo, Stephens had in fact called on Linant before setting out. His account, published in 1837, lively and ironic, is a great success and launches him towards the Maya cities. To read Stephens after Laborde is to see the same route made more expensive by the passage of the first.
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Hans Christian Andersen, A Poet's Bazaar (1840-1841)
In the spring of 1841 Hans Christian Andersen returned from Constantinople by the Black Sea and the Danube, on the steamers that now plied the river up to Vienna. He did quarantine at Orsova, the frontier town where Mayr had spent twenty-one days in the lazaretto in November 1813, and describes the Bulgarian, Serbian and Wallachian banks. The book, published in 1842, turns the journey into a poetic tableau. What had been for Mayr a dangerous crossing by caravan and boat had become, a generation later, a steamboat cruise; but the lazaretto had hardly changed.
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Edward Robinson et Eli Smith, Biblical Researches in Palestine, Mount Sinai and Arabia Petraea (1841)
In 1838, the American biblical scholar Edward Robinson travels through Palestine with the missionary Eli Smith, an accomplished Arabist. Bible in hand, compass and measuring tape in their saddlebags, they question villagers about the Arabic names of places and find beneath them a host of forgotten biblical sites. In Jerusalem, Robinson spots on the western wall the springing of an ancient arch that now bears his name. His Biblical Researches, published in 1841, lay the foundations of the historical geography of the Holy Land. Nine years earlier, Prokesch was already practising this surveyor-officer's method: bearings taken by compass, ramparts measured, ancient texts on the city walls debated.
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Gérard de Nerval, Journey to the Orient (1843)
In 1843 Gérard de Nerval spent several months in Cairo, bought a Javanese slave there, then went on to Beirut and Mount Lebanon, where he took a passionate interest in the Druze and the Maronites, before ending his journey in Constantinople during Ramadan. These are three major stages of Mayr's journey, thirty years later. The Voyage en Orient, published in 1851, mixes observation, reverie and legend. The conflicts of the Lebanese Mountain, which the Swiss merchant had seen at close quarters in Emir Bashir's time, became in Nerval's hands material for inquiry and story.
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Harriet Martineau, Eastern Life, Present and Past (1848)
Four years after Ida Pfeiffer, the Englishwoman Harriet Martineau, already famous for her writings on political economy, set out in turn for the East at the end of 1846. She goes up the Nile into Nubia, crosses Sinai, visits Petra, then Jerusalem, Galilee and Damascus. Like the Viennese woman, she travels as a mature woman, not letting the fatigues of the saddle and the tent stop her. But where Pfeiffer prays, Martineau reasons: her Eastern Life, Present and Past turns Egyptian temples and holy places into stages in a history of religions, to the point of scandalising some of her readers. Two women before the same stones, two ways of believing.
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Gustave Flaubert, Notes de voyages (1849-1851)
With Maxime Du Camp, Flaubert travels through Egypt, then Palestine, Syria, Rhodes and Constantinople between 1849 and 1851. He reaches Jerusalem in August 1850. His notebooks, published after his death and edited in 1910, were not meant for the public: brief notes, sensations, things seen, with no indulgence for the shrines or for the quarrels of the Christian communities at the Holy Sepulchre. They make striking reading after Bénard, who already described the division of the church among Latins, Greeks and Armenians, but with a believer's fervour. Flaubert looks there for the truth of things and finds above all disillusion.
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Gustave Flaubert, Voyage en Orient (1849-1851)
Five years after Thackeray, Gustave Flaubert and his friend Maxime Du Camp, who is charged with photographing the monuments, land at Alexandria in November 1849. They go up the Nile to the second cataract, climb the Pyramids, then pass through Beirut, Jerusalem, Rhodes, Smyrna, Constantinople and Athens before returning in 1851. Most of Thackeray's Eastern stops are found there, but seen by a man who flees the conventional picturesque as much as he does and seeks raw sensation: heat, grime, almehs, death. His notes and letters, published after his death, have the freedom of an intimate notebook. The Holy Sepulchre disappoints Flaubert as it had irritated Thackeray. See Voyage en Orient.
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Ludwig August Frankl, The Jews in the East (1856)
Three years after Énault, the Viennese poet Ludwig August Frankl, secretary of the Jewish community of Vienna, went to Jerusalem in 1856 to found a modern school there, the Lämel foundation. His book, published in 1858, describes from within what Énault saw from outside: the life of the city's Jewish communities, their poverty, their disputes, their dealings with the consuls and the Ottoman authorities. The Catholic pilgrim stopped at the Western Wall; Frankl entered homes, synagogues and hospices, and gave the Jerusalem of those years a face that Christian accounts left in shadow.
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Herman Melville, Journal of a Visit to Europe and the Levant (1856-1857)
In the autumn of 1856, Herman Melville, worn out by the failures of Moby-Dick and Pierre, sets out alone for the Mediterranean. He discovers Constantinople, goes down to Egypt, where the Pyramids overwhelm him, then lands at Jaffa and spends several weeks in Palestine, from Jerusalem to the Dead Sea, before Beirut, Greece and Italy. His journal, scribbled day by day and published only in the twentieth century, follows almost the route of Thackeray, but in another key: where the Englishman jokes before the Holy Sepulchre, the American finds a spiritual desert there. From this journey will come Clarel, a long poem on religious doubt published in 1876. See Journal of a Visit to Europe and the Levant.
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Mark Twain, The Innocents Abroad (1867)
In 1867 Mark Twain boarded the Quaker City in New York with some sixty passengers for one of the first organised cruises to Europe and the Holy Land. Like Énault, he travelled with a party of pilgrims, from Jaffa to Jerusalem, from the Jordan to Nazareth; but where the Parisian is moved, the American mocks the guides, the relics and his own companions. Published in 1869, The Innocents Abroad became its author's best-selling book in his lifetime. Read after Énault, it shows the same sacred road through a sceptical eye, fourteen years later.
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Mark Twain, The Innocents Abroad (1867)
In 1867, Mark Twain sails from New York on the Quaker City for one of the first organised cruises: Gibraltar, Tangier, Italy, Athens, Constantinople, Smyrna, Beirut, the Holy Land and Egypt. It is, twenty-three years later, Thackeray's cruise in an American version, with its pious pilgrims, its travellers who break off souvenirs from the monuments and a narrator who refuses to gush on command. Twain slips onto the Acropolis at night, haggles in the bazaar, is irritated by the relics of Jerusalem and contemplates the Sphinx. Published in 1869, the book became one of the best-selling travel narratives of its day and extends, in a louder tone, the satire of the tourist. See The Innocents Abroad.
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Vasily Vereshchagin, Tableaux et croquis de l'Asie centrale (1870)
The great Russian painter, who follows Konstantin von Kaufman's military expedition to Turkestan in the 1860s and 1870s, paints Samarkand, Khiva, and Bukhara before they are absorbed into Russia. His descriptions accompanying the paintings depict a Central Asia still recognizable from Schiltberger's: local emirs, religious fanaticism, Circassian slaves, processions of horsemen. The last years when the steppe still looked like the steppe.
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Edward Henry Palmer, The Desert of the Exodus (1871)
In 1869, the Cambridge orientalist Edward Henry Palmer takes part in the survey of Sinai carried out for the Palestine Exploration Fund; he then sets off again with the naturalist Charles Tyrwhitt-Drake to cross on foot, without escort, the desert of the Tih, the limestone plateau that Laborde saw bordering the Wadi Araba to the west. Ten months under a small tent, inscriptions copied in the valleys, nights among the Bedouin who call him Abdallah Effendi: The Desert of the Exodus, published in 1871, seeks, like Laborde's introduction, the traces of the Exodus in the landscape, but with the instruments of a new science. The desert Laborde skirted at last becomes a mapped country.
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Amelia B. Edwards, A Thousand Miles up the Nile (1873-1874)
Thackeray stops at Cairo and the Pyramids; the English novelist Amelia Edwards, who arrived in Egypt almost by chance in the winter of 1873, goes much further. On a dahabieh, with a friend and a Nubian crew, she sails up the Nile to Abu Simbel and the second cataract, draws the temples, has sand-buried paintings cleared and is outraged by the plundering. Her book, published in 1877, mixes life on board, landscapes and a scholarship that grows page by page. The journey decides her life: in 1882, she founds the Egypt Exploration Fund in London. See A Thousand Miles up the Nile.
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Laurence Oliphant, Haifa, or Life in Modern Palestine (1882-1885)
In 1882 the British writer and former diplomat Laurence Oliphant settled in Haifa, at the foot of Mount Carmel where Énault's journey ends, and spent his summers in a Druze village on the mountain. His letters to the New York Sun, collected in 1887, describe the German Templer colony, the first Jewish villages, the monasteries, the excavations, the Druze and the Bedouin. Where Énault saw a sacred land frozen in its biblical memories, Oliphant observes a changing country, cleared, settled and coveted. The pilgrims' Carmel becomes in his hands a vantage point on modern Palestine.
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Lord Curzon, Russia in Central Asia (1889)
The future Viceroy of India publishes in 1889 his account of a journey through the newly conquered Russian Turkestan. Schiltberger had seen Sarai on the Volga in its splendor; Curzon crosses its ruins of sand. A thousand roads the Bavarian had traveled as a captive, the Englishman retraces by trans-Caspian railway. Industrial modernity has replaced the nomadic steppe.
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Guy Le Strange, Palestine sous les musulmans (1890)
In 1890, the English orientalist gathered the descriptions that Arab and Persian geographers had left of Syria and Palestine from the seventh to the fifteenth century, giving considerable space to Nasir's account of Jerusalem and the Haram. Reading this collection after the Safarnama places the Persian's notebook within the chorus of all those who described the holy city before the Crusaders: Le Strange translates, compares, situates, and lets Nasir's voice be heard among his peers.
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Matilde Serao, In the Country of Jesus (1893)
Forty years after Énault, the Neapolitan journalist Matilde Serao, co-founder of the daily Il Mattino, made her own journey to the Holy Land in 1893 and drew from it a series of articles, collected in a volume in 1898. The same profession, the same Catholic faith, the same road to Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Galilee. Serao writes with fervour and a keen sense of scene, crowds and colour that recalls her predecessor's. The two journalists, the Parisian of the Second Empire and the Neapolitan of the century's end, form a diptych of pilgrimage as seen by the press.
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Pierre Loti, Jérusalem (1894)
In the spring of 1894, after crossing the Sinai on camelback, Pierre Loti arrives in Jerusalem as a pilgrim without faith, come to seek a religious emotion he does not find. Fifty years after Thackeray, he describes the same Holy Sepulchre crowded with rival sects, the same throngs of pilgrims, a grey city under the rain, but in a tone of fervent melancholy that is the exact opposite of the Englishman's irony. Published in 1895, the book forms with Le Désert and La Galilée an Eastern triptych. To read Loti after Thackeray is to measure how the same place can arouse satire in one and nostalgic fervour in the other. See Jérusalem.
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Pierre Loti, Le Désert (1895)
On 22 February 1894, Pierre Loti leaves the Springs of Moses with a camel caravan, climbs to the monastery of Sinai and goes down towards the Gulf of Aqaba, determined to take the longest route, the one through the desert of Petra, precisely because the guides advise him to avoid it. At Aqaba, the Ottoman administrator bars his way: the tribes of Idumea are in revolt, and Loti must turn off towards Gaza across the desert. Le Désert, published in 1895, is a journal of light and silence, all in shades of sand and granite. It shows what the entry into Petra was worth, won by Laborde through patience and gifts.
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T. E. Lawrence, Seven Pillars of Wisdom (1926)
On 6 July 1917, Thomas Edward Lawrence enters Aqaba with the Howeitat of Auda Abu Tayi and Sharif Nasir, after a long march through the desert that has taken the town from behind: coming from the plateau, they descend the valley of the Itm, Laborde's Wadi Djetoum, while the Turkish defences face the sea. The fortress where Laborde waited for the Alawin chiefs becomes the base of the Arab Revolt, and the approaches to Petra a front line. Seven Pillars of Wisdom, privately printed in a small edition in 1926 and then published in 1935, tells of this land of Edom crossed by dromedary, almost a century after Laborde and Linant passed through.